| Systematic Errors | Consistently occur in one direction, either positive or negative. | A scale that consistently reads 0.5 grams too high. |
| Instrumental Errors | Result from imperfections in the design or calibration of the measuring instrument. | A thermometer that consistently reads 2°C too low. |
| Imperfections in Experimental Technique | Errors due to changes in external conditions like temperature, humidity, or wind velocity. | Variability in measurements due to fluctuating room temperature. |
| Personal Errors | Arise from individual bias, improper setup, or carelessness. | A scientist consistently reading the meniscus of a liquid at the wrong point. |
| Random Errors | Unpredictable and uncontrollable errors. | Slight variations in measurements due to minor fluctuations in experimental conditions. |
| Causes of Random Errors | Fluctuations in experimental conditions, imperfections in measuring instruments, or variability in technique. | Small changes in air pressure affecting the measurements. |
| Minimizing Random Errors | Take repeated measurements and use statistical analysis. | Averages of multiple readings to reduce the impact of random fluctuations. |